１．General principle of human communication
 

1-1 The two essential elements for human communication

  Firstly I define human communications is inter-exchanging of information. In this exchanging process, two essential elements for communications is found: one is the formal rule as it, and the other its content. The former is grammar that we must have as common bese, and the latter is what we will speak or written itself. Without these two elements, no communication should stand up, and in philosophical term in Aristotle, the former correspondent to form and the latter to matter. It is so natural and fundamental fact that in most cases not to be noticed, but these two elements lead some important contrast that makes possible various types of communications in many races and nations.

  Firstly the formal rules in communications is necessary regularity that communicator must observe and may not change freely. But the content has something unknown for receiver of information, and so it is accidental. Consequently communication needs two contrary elements: the already known rules for it and the unknown. In usual communications both elements are mixed and hard to divide, but we can find that there is unbalance between both distinctly. For example, computer language has very stable rules in it, and if only one of it is misunderstood, the whole will be nonsense, because the machine as receiver of information extremely depends on its rules. But in usual human language the rule is not so strict, and lack of it is well supplemented by human relation. More or less human communications has this supplementing system in it, English, French, German and Japanese etc. has each own way to support lack of their regularity, and it is that makes peculiarity of people.
 

 1-2 Communication from face to face

  Communications among Japanese people so much depends on personal trusts that often supplement formal strictness. Lack of substance in daily conversation is most typical example. This kind of omission is possible in the community that is composed of member who is already known each other and has familiar relationship. In this community one can guess others minds by his usual behavior or speaking. The Japanese words ISHINDENSIN (direct communication from mind to mind ) shows this type of closed their relationship. In this relationship, the principle that decides how should members in community behave or the belief that each member does not have so much importance. Rather their character or liking has more important role in their communications. Hence Japanese communications depend on personal emotions of members in community rather than the principles that decide how they should behave in their community. I call this type of communicating ‘the communication from face to face’, because they judge to others minds by their face that shows his emotion. On the other side, I call the type of communicating by principle ‘the communication over the face’. It should be said that ‘the communication from face to face’ is depended on peculiarity of the community,

  Hence, if one who is unknown to its member enter their community, they will keep the distance to him and, in most cases, exclude him from their community not to be disturbed their communicating. The community that depends on this type of communication has very large flexibility in the inner, but do not have adequate way how should deal with the outer people. This is the fundamental reason why Japanese society appears closed, exclusive or mysterious.

  There is words KIKIJOUZU (a good listener)in Japanese. Generally they prefer KIKIJOUZU to HANASHIJOUZU (a good speaker) . It shows that their communications more depends on the ability of interpretation by listeners than speaker. In his sense, receivers of information have more important role than senders in their communication. Such way of communicating gives the community flexible ability of adapting to the changing of their circumstances, because they can tell their information to others without formal procedure, and deal with unexpected trouble instantly. But this flexibility is limited within their community. If they encounter a not experienced trouble, then they will have few ideas to solve it, because they have no explicit principles to understand or express new problems.

  At last KIKIJOUZU which they prefer is effective only within limited their own community. Beyond their community this thought might be harmful, HANASHIJOUZU is superior to KIKIJOUZU in following two points. Firstly former is effective not only to member in community, but also to everyone, and secondary it can keep away off misunderstanding both in and outer community.
 

＊ The concept of AMAE （dependence)

  The concept of 'AMAE (dependence)' shows Japanese specificity receiver of information more responsible than sender in communication. It has been popular concept for Japanese since appearance of the book 'The anatomy of dependence 'written by Takeo Doi. In it he proposed 'the psychology of the infant in its relationship to its mother' as 'the psychological prototype of Amae'.

  It is obvious that the psychological prototype of Amae lies in the psychology of the infant in its relationship to its mother. A few observations, then on this point: first, it is interesting that no one says of a newly born child that it is amaeru-ing. A child is not said to amaeru until, in the latter half of the year following its birth, it first begins to become aware of its surroundings and to seek after its mother.

  Amae, in other words, is used to indicate the seeking after the mother that comes when the infant's mind has developed to a certain degree and it has realized that its mother exists independently of itself. In other words, until it starts to amaeru the infant's mental life is an extension, as it were, of its life in the womb, and the mother and child are still unseparated. However, as its mind develops it gradually realizes that itself and its mother are independent existences, and comes to feel the mother as something indispensable to itself; it is the craving for close contact thus developed that constitutes, one might say, Amae. ['The anatomy of dependence' by Takeo Doi, KODANSHA INTERNATIONAL, p74]

  In this human relation between mother and infants, infants as the sender of information is too immature to transmit his will without the aid of his mother as receiver. In other words, its mother must understand its will only by how he is crying. Though this Amae relationship is found on the awareness of the division between infant and its mother, it is based on the communication field a priori.

  This consideration tells us the characteristic of Japanese communication ruled by maternal principle. The difference between maternal and paternal principle should be judged by whether sender or receiver of information is more responsible to their communication. If sender is more responsible to their communicating than receiver, it is ruled by paternal principle, and if receiver more to sender, it is ruled by maternal principle. From this point of view, we can say the culture of theism is ruled by paternal principle, and Japanese culture by maternal.
 

＊ KIKUBARI (careful attention to others)

  Japanese flexible communication among them is supported by KIKUBARI (careful attention to others). This is the ability to realize others desire without or before his asking. In their community no one can get good estimation without it, even if he has good abilities on business and keeps his morality in his usual life. Now this ability 'KIKUBARI' is the one of the most important skill for their business lives.
 

 1-3 The difference between Law and other rules

  However personal trusts have much role in Japanese community, there must be rules to keep order of their community or society in their communicating. Japanese have their regulation, and it shows peculiarity that I must investigate. Generally, rules are formalized as proposition with 'if'; 'if A is B, then A must be C'. Here what should be asked is what this ‘A’, ‘B’ or ‘C’ indicates. In Japanese community these elements 'A,B,C,･･･'that compose this proposition are always concrete things or persons. Usually, they behave according to the rules that decide relations among concrete and particular elements. ‘If Mr. A asks something to me, then I will undertake it, but if Mr. B asks, then I will not', this is a typical rule composed of particular elements. On the other hand,‘If condition A is satisfied, whoever asks it, I will receive his asking' is a rule composed by universal elements.

  This difference between universal and individual rules must has great importance in regulation of communication, because Japanese communication from face to face should be found only in personal relationship among individuals. In history of philosophy both terms ‘universal' and‘particular' have important meaning, which caused Universal Argument in Scholastic philosophy. Here I will formulate it in my own way.

     <particular relationship>

        (if) ａ - then → ｂ
             ｃ - then → ｄ (a,b,c,d,･･･ / particular beings)

     <universal relationship>

        (if)  classＡ   - then → classＢ

  The universal relations in universal rules consist in the relation some classes made by decided standard ('intention' in logical term), and elements of these classes ('extension' in logical tern) decided by it.

  I call this type of universal rule Law, and distinguish from others that decides concrete human relation. The most significant difference between Law and other rules is that the former depends on universal necessity beyond human being, but the latter on human relationships, which is accidental. The most rules found in Japanese society belong to the latter type. Their behavior and judgement decided by JOUSIKI (usual social senses) in limited community, but it is subjective, tacit and has poor validity for other community. There are many kinds of JOUSIKIs in Japan, for example JOUSIKI of company, village and school etc., but this fact means in Japan there are many closed communities that have few chances to intercourse with others. Actually, we can find many gaps that disturb to communicate found like generation gap and discrimination of job or sex. Japanese is exclusive not only to foreigner, but also to Japanese themselves.
 

＊ The trouble in stock market

  Mr. James Follows who is famous as revisionist to Japanese offered typical example that shows the difference between universal and individual rules. [CONTAINING JAPAN/MORE LIKE US (in Japanese version）p117]

  It is the episode when his English friend got the right to be a member of Tokyo stock market. He insisted that any companies that satisfied the condition of finance etc. must be allowed to enter it. But Japanese side only asked how many rights of members did he want. His English friend considered the condition as universal and calculates it by intentions, but Japanese considered it as individual and calculate it according to extension. Consequently, when the numbers of companies which satisfied the condition changed from two to three, Japanese side rejected his demand of free entering and blamed his behavior as deception. Western people used to feel stability in universal rules, but Japanese people feel convenience in individual rules.
 

 1-4 Two principles of ethics

  Ethics has two principles for its justification; one is particular rule which should be called JOUSIKI, and other is universal Law. All ethics has both elements as essential, but in the most cases, each ethics has slant to either. Japanese ethics used to be consider to be based on the morality of shame. It means their ethics greater emphasis on particular rule, because shame is emotion to particular person. On the other, hand European ethics is based on the idea of sin that lay stress on universal Law. The difference of both morality lies in the point that shame depends on the estimation of other people, but sin on belief of inner mind. Shame is decided by JOUSIKI that is made by consent of other people, but sin by universality that should be recognized by individual inner mind.

  Also this difference between shame and sin can be understood as difference between extroversive and introversive. Both terms‘extroversive' and ‘extroversive ' were originally indicated to psychology by Jung for classifying and expressing human personality. Generally extroversive people have more interest in outer facts than inner mind and estimate themselves by others. On the other hand, introversive people are more interested in their inner consciousness than outer estimations and do not estimate them by other. Consequently, the former is sociable personality, but the latter is not so and tend to like solitude.

  In modern society usually extroversive personality is more popular than introversive, but in Japanese this tendency more remarkable. They always emphasize on the importance of human society and harmonious human relationship, but find little value in solitude. Rather they dislike and avoid it for maintaining harmony of human relation. Though Japanese traditional culture have respected silence and solitude like Zen Buddhism, the tea ceremony, flower arrangement and the art of Tanka or Haiku poetry, they missed the value of them in modern Japanese society. Strictly speaking, they are too busy to keep their harmonious relationship on their business.

  They always say that nobody can live alone, but forget that nobody can be born and die instead of other. The former is truth in society, and the latter is truth in religion. Both truths are essential in our own life, but modern Japanese respect only one. It means that Japanese success in modern society made them over extroversive and breaks their balance between extroversive and introversive personality, though traditional culture had ability to balance of both personalities. After the Meiji Restoration their communication field was rapidly enlarged. This rapid enlarging brought them many problems and so we need to distinguish Japanese traditional base and their peculiarity in modern age.
 

＊ OTAKU

  ‘OTAKU' is the name which is given for the people who have their communicating only among the people sharing same hobby. Animation, movie and comic etc. are typical example of their hobby, which is always composed of human inner fantasies. In fact, they are so usually introversive and unsociable that they can not talk with others without common topics. Originally this name‘OTAKU' comes from Japanese word for calling others coldly and distinctly. Actually they seem very exclusive and often are despised for their gloomy images. But their way of behavior is for protecting themselves from over exclusive modern society, and it is only a result of adaptation to their surroundings.

  Their most significant problem does not lie in their unsociable character, rather in their lack of creativity. Though they are good critic and can talk about his hobby with enormous knowledge and detailed analysis concerning it, they have few ideas to compose their own works. They are always satisfied with critic but have little will to be creator. After all, their communication depends on outer knowledge given from others, and it shows dangerous status of introversive people in modern Japanese society. They can not find the matter for communicating in their own inner world, in spite of their introversive personality. If they can not get good successor who creates new works basing on their knowledge, their introversive ability will be vain.
 

＊ prophecy in ’CHRYSANTHEMUM AND THE SWORD'

  Following sentences written by Benedict contain the prophecy about Japanese future.

  Once Japanese have accepted, to however small a degree, the less codified rules that govern behavior in the United States they find it difficult to image their being able to manage again the restrictions of their old life in Japan. Sometimes they refer to it as a lost paradise, sometimes as a 'harness', sometimes as a 'prison', sometimes as a 'little pot' that holds a dwarfed tree. As long as the roots of the miniature pine were kept to the confines of the flowerpot, the result was a work of art that graced a charming garden. But once planted out in open soil, the dwarfed pine could never be put back again. They feel that they themselves are no longer possible ornaments in that Japanese garden. They could not again meet the requirements. They have experienced in its most acute form the Japanese dilemma of virtue.［P227, published by HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY]

  In consequence of the enlargement of Japanese communication field, they must gain new base for communicating according to new larger open soil for their life. And also the freedom that once they experience will not be deprived by Japanese dilemma of virtue. Enlargement of communication field and the feeling of freedom brought by it are not reversible.